The Prevalence of Cancer
Cancer affects millions of people. Cancer is the second leading cause of death and accounts for one-fifth of the total mortality in the United States. There are many different types, primary and metastatic and the following are some of the predicted morbidities and mortalities in the USA (R. Siegel, J. Ma, Z. Zou, A. Jemal, C A Cancer J. Clin. 64:9-29, 2014).
In 2014 there will be an estimated 1,665,540 new cancer cases. It is estimated that there will be 855,220 new male cases, and 810,320 new female cases. There will be 338,450 genital tumors (uterine cervix, uterine corpus, ovary, vulva, vagina, prostate, testis, and others) 298,610 digestive tumors (esophagus, stomach, small intestine, colon, rectum, anus, pancreas, liver, and others), 235,030 newly diagnosed breast cancers. Other tumors that comprise the rest of newly diagnosed cancers include, urinary system (141,610), lymphoma (79,990) respiratory system (242,550), brain and other nervous system (23,380), skin (81,220). Nonsolid tumors (leukemia) only account for 52,380 of the newly diagnosed tumors.
It is estimated that there will be 586,000 deaths in the USA due to cancer in 2014 (310,000 male, and 276,000 female). In the female population it is estimated that there will be 62,290 from the digestive system, 73,000 from the respiratory system (mostly lung) 40,000 from breast cancer, and other solid tumor sites comprising the rest of the 276,000. Nonsolid tumors will account for approximately 10,000 cancer deaths in females. In the male it is estimated that there will be 85,000 deaths from digestive tumors, 90,000 from the respiratory system (mostly lung), 29,000 from prostate cancer, and other tumor sites comprising the rest of the 310,000 cases. In males, only 14,000 of the estimated cancer deaths are from nonsolid tumors.
A majority of the deaths from cancer are due to the systemic metastatic effects of the disease. Metastatic disease is the growth of tumor cells outside of their site of origin. It is not uncommon for some cancer patients to have undetected metastasis at the time of original diagnosis, these are sometime referred to as micrometastasis.
Current Therapies
Cancer is characterized by the uncontrolled division of a population of cells. This uncontrolled division typically leads to the formation of a tumor, which may subsequently metastasize to other sites.
The current therapies for cancer can be divided into four categories: surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy.
Surgical oncology can be further divided into three distinct areas: curative, debulking, and palliative. The principal goal of surgery is to completely remove the tumor and obtain “clear” surgical margins. It is often not possible to completely resect the tumor because of location or because of local invasion into surrounding normal tissues. Examples of these are tumors that have invaded locally into nerve roots, muscle or bone. Surgery is the only therapy required for tumors that are diagnosed at an early stage that have not metastasized via the blood stream or the lymphatics, or invaded sensitive or inaccessible tissues. Although even in those situations additional therapy may be indicated. For example, women who undergo lumpectomies often receive a course of radiation after their surgery to prevent recurrence. A thorough staging evaluation is required before the patient is deemed probably curable by surgery alone. This staging work-up is performed to show that there is no spread of disease. Even after this many patients recur after what is deemed complete tumor resection. Surgery is also used as a debulking procedure where by the tumor has been or will be further inhibited by chemotherapy, radiotherapy or both chemotherapy and radiation therapy. The reason for performing radiation and chemotherapy first is because the tumor may initially be too large to remove and must be shrunk before clear surgical margins can be obtained. The other role that surgery plays is palliation (relief of symptoms). In this sense it is not used with curative intent but is only offered to relieve symptoms. A case of palliative oncologic surgery is the patient that has disease compressing the spinal cord and the tumor is removed to relieve the symptoms of pain and neurological deficit. In short surgery treats cancer by removing it.
Radiation therapy is used in approximately 50% of the patients that have cancer. Radiation therapy is used with curative, adjuvant or palliative intent. There are certain cancers that can be cured by radiation therapy alone. The group of patients judged to be able to benefit from radiation monotherapy are those that have been fully staged and are found to have local or local or loco-regional disease. Analogous to the way the surgeon uses the scalpel, the radiation oncologist uses the radiation beam to destroy cancer cells by causing physical damage, such as double strand breaks in the DNA of the cell. The radiation can be generated in high doses, low doses, short term or long term. The sources can be radioactive seeds, radioactive source probes or external beams such as the high energy x-rays that are produced by a machine called a linear accelerator. Cancers that, in some situations, be can be cured by radiation alone include prostate cancer, head and neck cancer, cervical cancer, brain tumors and other cancers. However, as in all other cancer therapy modalities, there are many patients that recur.
Most often radiation therapy is used in an adjuvant setting. The radiation is given either before or after surgery or chemotherapy. Examples of these include the patient with breast cancer that is given radiation after lumpectomy; or the patient that has head and neck cancer that has been surgically removed and is at high risk for local recurrence; or a patient that does not have clear surgical margins. This same type of interaction can occur with chemotherapy. For example, when a tumor has been shrunk by chemotherapy and radiation is given to eradicate remaining tumor cells not destroyed by the chemotherapy, or when radiation and chemotherapy are mutually sensitizing, such as with 5-fluorouracil.
The other way that radiation therapy is used is in the palliative setting where it can relieve symptoms of bone pain or neurological symptoms related to the brain or spinal cord compression.
Chemotherapy works by interfering with different phases of the cell cycle or intercalating with the DNA of the cancer cell. As with other modalities, it is used with curative intent, in the adjuvant setting, concomitantly with radiation, or it can be used palliatively. The regimen of chemotherapy that is used is dependent on the disease site and pathological subtype. Chemotherapy is given systemically and acts on cancer cells throughout the body. This systemic effect is unlike radiation and surgery that only destroy the cancer cells at the site of therapy. Chemotherapeutic agents are most often given as multi-drug regimens in order to take advantage of the different mechanisms of action of each drug and to avoid single drug-resistant mutant-cell proliferation.
Chemotherapy has shown good curative outcomes in patients with testicular tumors and lymphomas. More commonly, chemotherapy is given in the adjuvant setting in combination with surgery, radiation, or both. For example, chemotherapy is given prior to radiation in patients with non-small cell lung cancer, bladder cancer, head and neck cancer and Hodgkin's lymphoma. It is given concomitantly with radiation for patients small cell lung cancer, anal carcinoma, most gastro-intestinal malignancies, (stomach, rectum, esophagous, pancreas). It is given after surgery for bladder cancer, pancreatic cancer, stomach cancer, breast cancer and other solid tumors. It is used as a palliative agent for the patients that have pain or neurological symptoms.
Limitations of Current Therapies
The standard therapies above have significant limitations. None are 100% curative and all have associated toxicities. Surgery and radiation have the limitation that they can only treat locally or loco-regional disease. There is also a dose limit to the amount of radiation that can be given before there is too much damage to normal neighboring structures. Similarly, there is a limit to how much a surgeon may remove in order to get a clear surgical margin. Removal of too much normal tissue can cause excessive morbidity to the patient. Chemotherapy affects all tissues of the body since it is given systemically. Different chemo-therapeutic agents affect different organs differently. The most commonly affected organ is the bone marrow, where the drop in blood counts limits the dose of chemotherapy that can be given to the patient. But there can also be significant toxicity to kidneys, liver, gastrointestinal tract, and other tissues.
Primary solid tumors are generally treated by surgical resection. However, the majority of patients who have solid tumors also possess micrometastases beyond the primary tumor site. If treated with surgery alone, approximately 70% of these patients will experience recurrence of the cancer. Therefore, in addition to surgery, many cancers are also treated with a combination of therapies involving cytotoxic chemotherapeutic drugs (e.g., vincristine, vinblastine, cisplatin, methotrexate, 5-FU, etc.) and/or radiation therapy. One difficulty with this approach, however, is that radiotherapeutic and chemotherapeutic agents are toxic to normal tissues, and often create life-threatening side effects. In addition, these approaches often have extremely high failure/remission rates (up to 90% depending upon the type of cancer).
Developing Therapies
In addition to surgery, chemo- and radiation therapies, many have attempted to bolster or augment an individual's own immune system in order to eliminate the cancer cells. Historically, several immunotherapies have utilized bacterial or viral components as adjuvants, in order to stimulate the immune system to destroy the tumor cells. Examples of such components include BCG, endotoxin, mixed bacterial vaccines, interferons (alpha, beta, and gamma), interferon inducers (e.g., Brucella abortus, and various viruses), and thymic factors (e.g., thymosin fraction 5, and thymosin alpha-1) (see generally “Principles of Cancer Biotherapy,” Oldham (ed.), Raven Press, New York, 1987). Such agents have generally been useful as adjuvants and as nonspecific stimulants in animal tumor models, but have not yet proved to be generally effective in humans.
Lymphokines have also been utilized in the treatment of cancer. Briefly, lymphokines are secreted by a variety of cells, and generally have an effect on specific cells in the generation of an immune response. Examples of lymphokines include TNF-alpha, interferons, interleukins (e.g. IL-1, -2, -3, -4, and -12 as well as colony stimulating factors such as G-CSF, GM-CSF, and M-CSF). One group has utilized IL-2 to stimulate peripheral blood cells in order to expand and produce large quantities of cells that are cytotoxic to tumor cells (Rosenberg et al., N. Engl. J Med. 313:1485-1492, 1985). Another group of agents being studied are called chemokines. These are agents that attract immune cells to a site and thus may stimulate an immune response. An example of these is Rantes.
Others have suggested the use of antibody-mediated anti-cancer therapies. Briefly, antibodies may be developed which recognize certain cell surface antigens that are either unique, or more prevalent on cancer cells compared to normal cells. These antibodies, or “magic bullets,” may be utilized either alone or conjugated with a toxin in order to specifically target and kill tumor cells, or to block the function of the target protein (Dillman, “Antibody Therapy,” Principles of Cancer Biotherapy, Oldham (ed.), Raven Press, Ltd., New York, 1987). For example, Ball et al. (Blood 62:1203-1210, 1983) treated several patients with acute myelogenous leukemia with one or more of several monoclonal antibodies specific for the leukemia, resulting in a marked decrease in circulating leukemia cells during treatment. Similarly, others have utilized toxin-conjugated antibodies therapeutically to treat a variety of tumors, including, for example, melanomas, colorectal carcinomas, prostate carcinomas, breast carcinomas, and lung carcinomas (see Dillman, supra). More recently, mononclonal antibodies targeting a wide range of have been demonstrated to be effective, and many have been approved for the treatment of a wide range of tumor types (J. M. Reichert, V. E. Valge-Archer, Nat Rev Drug Disc, 6(5):349-355, 2007).
Immune Checkpoint Proteins as Therapeutic Targets
Recent progress in cancer treatment has been made by targeting Immune checkpoint proteins with monoclonal antibodies. Immune checkpoint proteins are regulatory components of the immune system. It is thought that immune checkpoint proteins modulate the intensity and duration of the immune responses, and have key functions in limiting excessive inflammation and the prevention of autoimmunity. It has been observed that many tumor types co-opt the immune checkpoint regulatory scheme as a means to evade antitumor immune surveillance. The blockade of a number of immune checkpoint proteins has been demonstrated to be an effective approach in the treatment of cancer. Ipilimumab (anti-CTLA-4) has been approved as a treatment for of metastatic melanoma, including patients with brain metastases (K. Margolin, Oncoimmunology 1:1197-1199, 2012; F. S. Hodi, et al Nature Clinical Practice, 5, 557-561,2008). CTLA-4 is expressed on activated T cells and is thought to act by limiting T cell activation by competing with CD28 coactivator protein in binding with CD80/CD86 ligands (D. Pardoll, C. Drake, J Exp Med, 209: 201-209). Programmed cell Death 1 (PD-1) is another checkpoint protein that is expressed on T cells, B cells and NK cells. Studies targeting PD-1 and PD-L1 have reported clinical responses in a variety of tumor types with favorable safety profiles (J. R. Brahmer et al N Engl J Med 366: 2455-2465. 2012; S. L. Topalian N Engl J Med 366:2443-2454).
Monotherapy treatment of tumors with an Immune checkpoint inhibitor antibody, such as Anti-CTLA-4, is known to provide a clinically meaningful but relatively modest increase in overall survival, and complete and partial responses only occurred in a small subset of subjects (about 10.9%) (Senzer et al, J Clin Oncol. 27(34):5763-5771, 2009). Antibodies targeting other checkpoints, such as PD-1 also have shown clinical efficacy with durable responses in a number of tumor types, but response rates remain suboptimal with less than 50% of patients responding (J. R. Brahmer et al N Engl J Med 366: 2455-2465. 2012; S. L. Topalian N Engl J Med 366:2443-2454). There is a need to improve response rates for antibodies targeting checkpoint inhibitors, such as CTLA4, PD-1, and PD-L1.
Oncolytic Viruses as Oncology Therapeutics
Recent progress has also been made in the use of oncolytic viruses applied to the treatment. Oncolytics virus refers to a virus capable of selectively replicating in and slowing the growth or inducing the death of cancerous or hyperproliferative cells, while having minimal effects on normal cells. Examples of oncolytic viruses, and viruses from which oncolytic virus have been derived include, vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), Newcastle disease virus (NDV), herpes simples virus (HSV), reovirus, measles virus, retrovirus, influenza virus, Sinbis virus, vaccinia virus, adenovirus, or the like (e.g., Kirn et al, Nat Med 7:781(2001); Coffey et al., Science 282:1332 (1998); Lorence et al., Cancer Res. 54:6017 (1994); and Peng et al., Blood 98:2002 (2001)).
An example of an oncolytic virus is Talimogene laherparepvec, which is based on a HSV-1 [strain JS1] ICP34.5-/ICP47-/hGM-CSF. Talimogene laherparepvec is an intratumorally delivered oncolytic immunotherapy comprising an immune-enhanced HSV-1 that selectively replicates in solid tumors, and has been engineered to express the immune stimulatory cytokine GM-CSF (Lui et al., Gene Therapy, 10:292-303, 2003; U.S. Pat. No. 7,223,593 and U.S. Pat. No. 7,537,924).
Talimogene laherparepvec produces a direct oncolytic effect by replication of the virus in the tumor, and induction of an anti-tumor immune response enhanced by the local expression of GM-CSF. Since melanoma is a disseminated disease, this dual activity is beneficial as a therapeutic treatment. The intended clinical effects include the destruction of injected tumors, the destruction of local, locoregional, and distant uninjected tumors, a reduction in the development of new metastases, a reduction in the rate of overall progression and of the relapse rate following the treatment of initially present disease, and prolonged overall survival.
Talimogene laherparepvec has been tested for efficacy in a variety of in vitro (cell line) and in vivo murine tumor models and has been shown to eradicate tumors or substantially inhibit their growth at doses comparable to those used in clinical studies. Nonclinical evaluation has also confirmed that GM-CSF enhances the immune response generated, enhancing both injected and uninjected tumor responses, and that increased surface levels of MHC class I molecules result from the deletion of ICP47. Talimogene laherparepvec has been injected into normal and tumor-bearing mice to assess its safety. In general, the virus has been well tolerated, and doses up to 1×10s PFU/dose have given no indication of any safety concerns. (See, for example, Liu et al., Gene Ther 10: 292-303, 2003)
Clinical studies have been or are being conducted in several advanced tumor types (advanced solid tumors, melanoma, squamous cell cancer of the head and neck, and pancreatic cancer), with over 400 subjects treated with talimogene laherparepvec (see, for example, Hu et al., Clin Can Res 12: 6737-6747, 2006; Harrington et al., J Clin Oncol. 27(15a):abstract 6018, 2009; Kaufman et al., Ann Surgic Oncol. 17: 718-730, 2010; Kaufman and Bines, Future Oncol. 6(6): 941-949, 2010). Clinical data indicate that talimogene laherparepvec has the potential to provide overall clinical benefit to patients with advanced melanoma. In particular, a high rate of complete response was achieved in stage IIIc to IV melanoma (Scenzer et al., J. Clin. Oncol. 271(12):907-913, 2009). In addition, responses were observed in both injected and uninjected sites, including visceral sites.
While very promising activity of oncolytic viruses has been observed, This multistep mechanism requires the utilization of an oncolytic virus of a type that is able to infect and replicate efficiently within the cancerous or hyperproliferative cells that are being targeted. The activity of oncolytic viruses, such as the example of talimogene laherparepvec, depends on the lysis of cancerous or hyperproliferative cells in which they are able to replicate. Furthermore, during replication and spread of the oncolytic virus, the immune system may recognize such and agent, limiting the spread of virus particle locally between cells, and systemically between tumors or metastases or micrometastases. This could limit effectiveness of this approach.
Cancer Gene Therapy (Gene Delivery Vehicles)
Gene Delivery Vehicles (GDV) can be classified as two main types—viral and non-viral. Both types are reviewed in detail in Cell and Gene Therapy, N.S. Templeton Ed. CRC Press, 2008. The most commonly used viral systems are retroviral vectors and adenoviral vectors, in part for historical reasons and in part because they have been relatively straightforward to make in clinically useful quantities. These vectors have both been used extensively in the clinic, and some clinical trials have also been conducted using adeno-associated viral vectors, rhabdoviruses, herpes viral vectors and vectors based on vaccinia virus or poxviruses. These viruses have various strengths and weaknesses, but are all relatively efficient in delivering genes to target tissues. Limitations include difficulties in making sufficient quantities for some vectors, inability to accurately target the gene delivery in vivo, toxic or immunological side effects of viral gene products. However it should be noted that even with the relatively efficient viral vectors it is not reasonable at present to expect that a gene can be delivered to every sick cell, and so therapy need to be accomplished by means that are compatible with this issue.
Non viral systems include naked DNA, DNA formulated in lipososomes and DNA formulated with polycation condensing agents or hybrid systems. These systems are more amenable to building in rational regulated steps to accomplish a long in vivo half-life, delivery to the target cell/tissue, entry into the cytoplasm and nucleus and then subsequent expression. Although there are possible solutions to each of these issues, they have not yet been efficiently combined, and efficiency of gene transfer in vivo remains an issue at this time. So for these systems also, it is not reasonable to expect to be able to deliver a gene to every cell, for example in a tumor.
Therefore, in cancer therapies using gene delivery vehicles, it is necessary to use mechanisms that allow some kind of amplification of the gene delivery events. These may include stimulation of the immune system, various forms of bystander effects, spread of apoptosis, anti-angiogenic effects, pro-coagulant effects, replication competent viral vectors or other mechanisms.
Some cytotoxic GDVs, such as AdV-tk utilize viral components. Both oncolytic viruses and viral cytotoxic GDVs have been investigated as therapeutic approaches for cancer. Key differences in the mechanism by which they function. Oncolytic viruses rely on viral replication for lysis for the target cancer cell. Cytotoxic GDVs such as AdV-tk and prodrug generate a cytotoxic effect by delivering a gene, the expression of which in or proximal to a cancer cell, results in a local cytotoxic effect independent of replication of the viral gene delivery vehicle.
Cancer Gene Therapy Methods
Because of the generally dismal outlook for many cancer patients and the plateau in improvements with conventional therapies such as those described above, there has been considerable interest in using novel modalities such as gene therapy for treatment of cancer (see F. Farzaneh, U. Trefzer, W. Sterry and P. Walden: “Gene therapy of Cancer” Immunology Today 19: 294-296, 1998). These include various paradigms such as: introduction of genes for various cytokines and chemokines in order to generally stimulate immunity against the tumor and its presumed tumor associated antigens (TAAs e. g. Addison et al. Gene Ther. 5: 1400-1409 1998); administration of genes for specific TAAs to stimulate immunity against these antigens (e. g. Schlom & Hodge Immunol Rev. 170: 73-84 1999); treatment with tumor suppressor or apoptosis inducing genes such as p53 (Eastham J A J. Urol. 164: 814-9 2000); treatment with genes the products of which can lead to suppression of angiogenesis or otherwise diminish blood-flow to tumor sites (e.g. Grischelli et al Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95: 6367-6372 1998, WO 96/21416); treatment with genes the products of which will metabolize inactive compounds into active anti-tumor compounds (Connors, Gene Ther. 2: 702-709 1995, Deonarian et al. Gene Ther. 2: 235-244 1995); and combinations of these (e. g. Soler M N,); various other modalities such as those designed to potentiate T cell anti-tumor responses. The vectors used include retroviral vectors, adenoviral vectors, naked and formulated DNA, herpes viral vectors, adeno-associated vectors, and many other kinds of vectors (see T. Friemann 1999 op. cit.). Animal experiments have shown the possibility of success with some of these modalities and vectors and many of these continue to have promise. However, as noted above, there are logistical difficulties in implementing trials and putting into use many of these therapies. This has been exacerbated because gene therapy approaches have often been seen as monotherapies or used alone in patients with end-stage disease. The introduction and use of gene therapy approaches would be simpler if it were understood what their interactions with standard of care therapies were and it were used as an adjuvant therapy in all stages of disease.
A number of animal tumor studies have been performed with adenoviral vector encoding the Herpes virus thymidine kinase (HSVTK, AdTk, AdV-tk, etc) (L. K. Aguilar et al. J Cell Biochem. 112(8):1969-1977, 2011 and references therein). In addition replicating adenoviral vectors encoding TK (O. Wildner et al. Gene Therapy 6: 57-62 1999) and the use of adenoviral vectors encoding prodrug activating genes (PDAG) with radiation therapy (Freytag et al Hum. Gene Ther. 9: 1323-1333 1998 and references therein) have been reported in animal models. However implementation of these therapies in the clinic face considerable issues as described in this specification. In addition clinical trial results with an adenoviral vector encoding TK in conjunction with anti-herpetic prodrug has also been reported in patients suffering from a variety of cancers including prostate cancer (J. R. Herman, Hum. Gene Ther. 10:1239-1249 1999), malignant glioma (E. A. Chiocca et al, J Clin Oncol. 29(27):3611-9, 2011), and mesothelioma (D. H. Sterman et al, Clin Cancer Res 11(20):7444-53, 2005). While collectively these studies provide promising data, improvements in efficacy remain a need.
Problems in Introducing New Therapies
Clinical trials conducted in an ethical and legal manner follow established rules of conduct and practice (e.g. see the US Code of Federal Regulations—Chpt. 21). Such guidelines are enforced and policed by patient advocacy groups, the National Institute of Health, the ethical standards and advice of the physicians, by Institutional Review Boards set up to specifically review such issues in every trial conducted at the specific medical institution, and by the national drug approval agency (in the USA this is the Food and Drug Administration, FDA). Trials are therefore conducted in a manner that does not deprive a patient of the most appropriate treatment that would normally be used on that patient (the clinical standard of care). Therefore it is difficult to determine the efficacy of new therapies, especially in cancer, as stand-alone treatments for the disease. The only context where such therapies can be introduced clinically is when all other therapies have been tried, and no therapy is left that is expected to have a clinical benefit. Such patients usually have advanced disease with short life expectancy. This makes the testing of such new therapies very difficult and unlikely to yield positive results, given the advanced stage of disease. An alternative to this approach is to test candidate therapies that can be used in the context of current standard of care and simply be given in addition to current therapy. This demands that the new therapy at least does not negatively interact with current therapy and also vice versa. Ideally the new therapy would be expected to show collaborative effects with the current clinical treatment. In addition it is difficult and expensive during trials and also for new therapies if extra medical care such as infusions requiring hospitalization or extensive home care are required. Therefore any new therapy that adds a minimum of extra hospital care or extensive home care will be more acceptable to patients, physicians and those institutions paying for healthcare. This in turn will make these therapies more likely to go through to approval by healthcare authorities and be used by treating physicians.
The present technology is described herein using several definitions, as set forth throughout the specification. Unless otherwise stated, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include the plural reference. For example, a reference to “a virus” includes a plurality of virus particles, and a reference to “a nucleic acid” is a reference to one or more nucleic acids.
As used herein, the term “administration” of an agent or drug to a subject includes any route of introducing or delivering to a subject a compound to perform its intended function. Administration can be carried out by any suitable route, including orally, intratumorally, intracranially, parenterally (intravenously, intramuscularly, intraperitoneally, or subcutaneously), rectally, or topically. Administration includes self-administration and the administration by another.
As used herein, the term “antibody” means a polypeptide comprising a framework region from an immunoglobulin gene or fragments thereof that specifically binds and recognizes an antigen, e.g., a PD-1 polypeptide. Use of the term antibody is meant to include whole antibodies, including single-chain antibodies, and antigen-binding fragments thereof. The term “antibody” includes bispecific antibodies and multispecific antibodies so long as they exhibit the desired biological activity or function.
As used herein, the term “cancer” refers to a class of diseases of humans (and animals) characterized by uncontrolled cellular growth. As used herein, “cancer” is used interchangeably with the terms “tumor,” “malignancy,” “hyperproliferation” and “neoplasm(s).” The term “cancer cell(s)” is interchangeable with the terms “tumor cell(s),” “malignant cell(s),” “hyperproliferative cell(s),” and “neoplastic cell(s)” unless otherwise explicitly indicated. Similarly, the terms “hyperproliferative,” “hyperplastic,” “malignant” and “neoplastic” are used interchangeably, and refer to those cells in an abnormal state or condition characterized by rapid proliferation. Collectively, these terms are meant to include all types of hyperproliferative growth, hyperplastic growth, neoplastic growth, cancerous growths or oncogenic processes, metastatic tissues or malignantly transformed cells, tissues, or organs, irrespective of histopathologic type or stage of invasiveness.
As used herein, the term “chemotherapy” refers to any therapy that includes natural or synthetic chemotherapeutic agents now known or to be developed in the medical arts. Examples of chemotherapeutic agents include the numerous cancer drugs that are currently available. However, chemotherapy also includes any drug, natural or synthetic, that is intended to treat a disease state. In certain embodiments, chemotherapy may include the administration of several state of the art drugs intended to treat the disease state. Examples include chemotherapy with doxorubicin, cisplatin, 5-fluorouracil, fludarabine and bendamustine.
As used herein, the term “effective amount” or “pharmaceutically effective amount” or “therapeutically effective amount” or “prophylactically effective amount” of a composition, is a quantity sufficient to achieve a desired therapeutic and/or prophylactic effect, e.g., an amount which results in the prevention of, or a decrease in, the symptoms associated with a disease that is being treated, e.g., a cancer. The amount of a composition administered to the subject will depend on the type and severity of the disease and on the characteristics of the individual, such as general health, age, sex, body weight and tolerance to drugs. It will also depend on the degree, severity and type of disease. In some embodiments, an effective amount of an oncolytic virus may be administered to a subject having cancer in an amount sufficient to exert oncolytic activity, causing attenuation or inhibition of tumor cell proliferation leading to primary and/or metastatic tumor regression.
As used herein, the term “humanized” refers to forms of non-human (e.g., murine) antibodies that are chimeric antibodies which contain minimal sequence derived from nonhuman immunoglobulin. For the most part, humanized antibodies are human immunoglobulins in which hypervariable region residues of the recipient are replaced by hypervariable region residues from a non-human species (donor antibody) such as mouse, rat, rabbit or nonhuman primate having the desired specificity, affinity, and capacity. In some instances, Fv framework region (FR) residues of the human immunoglobulin are replaced by corresponding non-human residues. Furthermore, humanized antibodies may comprise residues which are not found in the recipient antibody or in the donor antibody. These modifications are made to further refine antibody performance such as binding affinity. Generally, the humanized antibody will comprise substantially all of at least one, and typically two, variable domains, in which all or substantially all of the hypervariable loops correspond to those of a non-human immunoglobulin and all or substantially all of the FR regions are those of a human immunoglobulin sequence although the FR regions may include one or more amino acid substitutions that improve binding affinity. The number of these amino acid substitutions in the FR are typically no more than 6 in the H chain, and in the L chain, no more than 3. The humanized antibody optionally also will comprise at least a portion of an immunoglobulin constant region (Fc), typically that of a human immunoglobulin. For further details, see Jones et al., Nature 321:522-525 (1986); Reichmann et al., Nature 332:323-329 (1988); and Presta, Curro Op. Struct. Biol. 2:593-596 (1992).
As used herein, the term “immune response” refers to the concerted action of lymphocytes, antigen presenting cells, phagocytic cells, granulocytes, and soluble macromolecules produced by the above cells or the liver (including antibodies, cytokines, and complement) that results in selective damage to, destruction of, or elimination from the human body of cancerous cells, metastatic tumor cells, etc.
The term “monoclonal antibody” as used herein refers to an antibody obtained from a population of substantially homogeneous antibodies, i.e., the individual antibodies comprising the population are identical except for possible naturally occurring mutations that may be present in minor amounts. Monoclonal antibodies are highly specific, being directed against a single antigenic site. Furthermore, in contrast to conventional (polyclonal) antibody preparations which typically include different antibodies directed against different determinants (epitopes), each monoclonal antibody is directed against a single determinant on the antigen. The modifier “monoclonal” indicates the character of the antibody as being obtained from a substantially homogeneous population of antibodies, and is not to be construed as requiring production of the antibody by any particular method. For example, the monoclonal antibodies to be used in accordance with the present invention may be made by the hybridoma method first described by Kohler et al., Nature 256:495 (1975), or may be made by recombinant DNA methods (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,816,567).
As used herein, the term “PD-1” is an acronym for the Programmed Cell Death 1 protein, a 50-55 kDa type I transmembrane receptor originally identified by subtractive hybridization of a mouse T cell line undergoing apoptosis (Ishida et al., 1992, Embo J. 11:3887-95). PD-1 is expressed on activated T, B, and myeloid lineage cells (Greenwald et al., 2005, Annu. Rev. Immunol. 23:515-48; Sharpe et al., 2007, Nat. Immunol. 8:239-45). The amino acid sequence of human PD-1 is GenBank Accession No. NP 005009.2. The amino acid sequence of murine PD-1 is GenBank Accession No. AAI19180.1.
As used herein, the term “polyclonal antibody” means a preparation of antibodies derived from at least two (2) different antibody-producing cell lines. The use of this term includes preparations of at least two (2) antibodies that contain antibodies that specifically bind to different epitopes or regions of an antigen.
As used herein, the term “polynucleotide” or “nucleic acid” means any RNA or DNA, which may be unmodified or modified RNA or DNA. Polynucieotides include, without limitation, single- and double-stranded DNA, DNA that is a mixture of single- and doublestranded regions, single- and double-stranded RNA, RNA that is mixture of single- and double-stranded regions, and hybrid molecules comprising DNA and RNA that may be single-stranded or, more typically, double-stranded or a mixture of single- and doublestranded regions. In addition, polynucleotide refers to triple-stranded regions comprising RNA or DNA or both RNA and DNA. The term polynucleotide also includes DNAs or RNAs containing one or more modified bases and DNAs or RNAs with backbones modified for stability or for other reasons. In a particular embodiment, the polynucleotide contains sequences encoding a PD-1 binding agent, such as an anti-PD-1 antibody (e.g., an anti-PD-1 scFv).
As used herein, the terms “polypeptide”, “peptide” and “protein” are used interchangeably to mean a polymer comprising two or more amino acids joined to each other by peptide bonds or modified peptide bonds, i.e., peptide isosteres. Polypeptide refers to both short chains, commonly referred to as peptides, glycopeptides or oligomers, and to longer chains, generally referred to as proteins. Polypeptides may contain amino acids other than the 20 gene-encoded amino acids. Polypeptides include amino acid sequences modified either by natural processes, such as post-translational processing, or by chemical modification techniques that are well known in the art. Such modifications are well described in basic texts and in more detailed monographs, as well as in a voluminous research literature. In a particular embodiment, the polypeptide contains polypeptide sequences of a PD-1 binding agent, such as an anti-PD-1 antibody (e.g., an anti-PD-1 scFv).
As used herein, the term “recombinant” when used with reference, e.g., to a cell, virus, nucleic acid, protein, or vector, indicates that the cell, virus, nucleic acid, protein or vector, has been modified by the introduction of a heterologous nucleic acid or protein or the alteration of a native nucleic acid or protein, or that the material is derived from a cell so modified. Thus, e.g., recombinant viruses express genes that are not found within the native (non-recombinant) form of the virus or express native genes that are otherwise abnormally expressed, under expressed or not expressed at all. Thus, when referring to a “recombinant HSV” or “recombinant vaccinia” it is meant that the HSV or vaccinia has been genetically altered, e.g., by the addition or insertion of a selected gene, e.g., a PD-1 binding agent.
As used herein, the term “subject” refers to an organism administered one or more active agents. Typically, the subject is a mammal, such as an animal, e.g., domestic animals (e.g., dogs, cats and the like), farm animals (e.g., cows, sheep, pigs, horses and the like) and laboratory animals (e.g., monkey, rats, mice, rabbits, guinea pigs and the like). Typically, the terms “subject” and “patient” are used interchangeably herein in reference to a human subject.
As used herein, the terms “treating” or “treatment” or “alleviation” refers to both therapeutic treatment and prophylactic or preventative measures, wherein the object is to prevent or slow down (lessen) the targeted pathologic condition or disorder. For example, a subject is successfully “treated” for a cancer, if after receiving a therapeutic amount of the compositions described herein, the subject shows observable and/or measurable reduction in or absence of one or more signs and symptoms of the cancer, e.g., reduction in the number of cancer cells or absence of the cancer cells; reduction in the tumor size; inhibition (i.e., slow to some extent and preferably stop) of tumor metastasis; inhibition, to some extent, of tumor growth; increase in length of remission, and/or relief to some extent, of one or more of the symptoms associated with the specific cancer; reduced morbidity and mortality, and improvement in quality of life issues.